Adaptation to climate change has become a more serious concern as IPCC assessment reports estimate a rise of up to 2 degrees C in average global temperatures by the end of the century. Several recently published studies have underlined the importance of forest management in mitigating the impacts of climate change and in supporting the adaptation capacity of the ecosystem. This study focuses on the role of water-related forest services in this adaptation process. The effects of forestry practices on streamflow can best be determined by paired watershed analysis. The impact of two cutting treatments on runoff was analyzed by a paired experimental watershed study in the Belgrade Forest and the results were evaluated in relation to similar experiments conducted around the world. Forest thinning treatments at 11% and 18% were carried out in a mature oak-beech forest ecosystem over different time periods. Although the thinning increased the runoff statistically, the amount of surplus water remained <5% of the annual water yield. Evidently, the hydrologic response of the watersheds was low due to the reduced intensity of the timber harvest. Finally, the results were combined with those of global studies on thinning, clearcutting and species conversion with the aim of formulating management options for adaptation.
NbS Target: Food & Water Security
Food and water security
Addressing food security with local and sustainable food production is a key requirement for supporting a globally sustainable agricultural system. Food insecurity is prevalent in Indigenous communities in Canada, especially in rural and remote regions of northern (subarctic and arctic) Canada. Further, climate change has disproportionately impacted subarctic and arctic regions worldwide − surface air temperatures are now more favourable for agricultural activities − offering the potential for local food production under ambient conditions. The objectives of the present study were to evaluate bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) intercrops grown over a two-year period in two sites (treed, windbreak-lined with native willow, Salix. spp.; and non-treed, or open) in the subarctic Indigenous community of Fort Albany First Nation, Ontario, Canada. Intercrops grown in the windbreak-lined site produced significantly greater (p < 0.05) yields and biomass than the open site. An analysis of soil chemistry (pH, P, K, Mg, NO3, NH4 and total N) showed that with some local amendments such as offal and bone meal, both the windbreak-lined and open sites can support continued agricultural use. This study informs Indigenous communities across subarctic regions of the world that climate change not only brings challenges, but also opportunities, such as potentially sustainable local food production.
A changing climate will inevitably impact on the natural environment, including agriculture. Anticipatory adaptation is necessary to minimise the negative impacts of climate change, to take advantage of opportunities, and to ensure that food and fibre production is maintained. More detailed information is required as to which adaptation measures will yield relatively greater social rates of return. Such information would help define an efficient adaptation agenda in the agricultural sector. This article identifies key adaptation strategies across England’s agricultural sector, and applies cost–benefit analysis to these to determine their net present values, highlighting where the greatest returns can be made, and the role for policy. The results span a wide range, with some soil management activities indicating a negative NPV of £122 million over the course of this century, to a positive NPV of £3,279 million in the case of some livestock adaptations to heat stress. Animal disease surveillance and peatland restoration also generated high NPVs of £1,850 million and £1,840 million, respectively. Adaptations addressing crop disease, water storage measures and managed coastal realignment generated more modest values ranging from £1 million to £61 million. Direct comparison of the numbers is misleading however as some refer to the national level while others are site‐specific. The analysis provides a basis for a discussion on priorities and planning for adaptation in the agricultural sector.
Selection of areas for restoration should be based on cost-effectiveness analysis to attain the maximum benefit with a limited budget and overcome the traditional ad hoc allocation of funds for restoration projects. Restoration projects need to be planned on the basis of ecological knowledge and economic and social constraints. We devised a novel approach for selecting cost-effective areas for restoration on the basis of biodiversity and potential provision of 3 ecosystem services: carbon storage, water depuration, and coastal protection. We used Marxan, a spatial prioritization tool, to balance the provision of ecosystem services against the cost of restoration. We tested this approach in a mangrove ecosystem in the Caribbean. Our approach efficiently selected restoration areas that at low cost were compatible with biodiversity targets and that maximized the provision of one or more ecosystem services. Choosing areas for restoration of mangroves on the basis carbon storage potential, largely guaranteed the restoration of biodiversity and other ecosystem services
A spatial analysis is presented that aims to synthesize the evidence for climate and social dimensions of the ‘regreening” of the Sahel. Using an independently constructed archival database of donor-funded interventions in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Senegal in response to the persistence of drought in the 1970s and 1980s, the spatial distribution of these interventions is examined in relation to population density and to trends in precipitation and in greenness. Three categories of environmental change are classified: 1) regions at the northern grassland/shrubland edge of the Sahel where NDVI varies interannually with precipitation, 2) densely populated cropland regions of the Sahel where significant trends in precipitation and NDVI decouple at interannual time scales, and 3) regions at the southern savanna edge of the Sahel where NDVI variation is independent of precipitation. Examination of the spatial distribution of environmental change, number of development projects, and population density brings to the fore the second category, covering the cropland areas where population density and regreening are higher than average. While few, regions in this category coincide with emerging hotspots of regreening in northern Burkina Faso and southern central Niger known from case study literature. In examining the impact of efforts to rejuvenate the Sahelian environment and livelihoods in the aftermath of the droughts of the 1970s and 1980s against the backdrop of a varying and uncertain climate, the transition from desertification to regreening discourses is framed in the context of adaptation to climate change.
Adaptation strategies to reduce smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to climate variability and seasonality are needed given the frequency of extreme weather events predicted to increase during the next decades in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in West Africa. We explored the linkages between selected agricultural adaptation strategies (crop diversity, soil and water conservation, trees on farm, small ruminants, improved crop varieties, fertilizers), food security, farm household characteristics and farm productivity in three contrasting agro-ecological sites in West Africa (Burkina Faso, Ghana and Senegal). Differences in land area per capita and land productivity largely explained the variation in food security across sites. Based on land size and market orientation, four household types were distinguished (subsistence, diversified, extensive, intensified), with contrasting levels of food security and agricultural adaptation strategies. Income increased steadily with land size, and both income and land productivity increased with degree of market orientation. The adoption of agricultural adaptation strategies was widespread, although the intensity of practice varied across household types. Adaptation strategies improve the food security status of some households, but not all. Some strategies had a significant positive impact on land productivity, while others reduced vulnerability resulting in a more stable cash flow throughout the year. Our results show that for different household types, different adaptation strategies may be ‘climate-smart’. The typology developed in this study gives a good entry point to analyse which practices should be targeted to which type of smallholder farmers, and quantifies the effect of adaptation options on household food security. Subsequently, it will be crucial to empower farmers to access, test and modify these adaptation options, if they were to achieve higher levels of food security.
Traditional agroforestry parkland systems in Burkina Faso are under threat due to human pressure and climate variability and change, requiring a better understanding for planning of adaptation. Field experiments were conducted in three climatic zones to assess Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (Sorghum) biomass, grain yield and harvest index in parklands under different rainfall pattern and compared to simulations of sorghum biomass and grain yield with the Water, Nutrient and Light Capture in Agroforestry Systems (WaNuLCAS) model for calibration and parametrisation. For planning adaptation, the model was then used to evaluate the effects of different management options under current and future climates on sorghum biomass and grain yield. Management options studied included tree densities, tree leaf pruning, mulching and changes in tree root patterns affecting hydraulic redistribution. The results revealed that sorghum biomass and grain yield was more negatively affected by Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) Benth. (néré) compared to Vitellaria paradoxa C. F Gaertn (karité) and Adansonia digitata L. (baobab), the three main tree species of the agroforestry parkland system. Sorghum biomass and grain yield in different influence zones (sub-canopy, outside edge of canopy, open field) was affected by the amount of precipitation but also by tree canopy density, the latter depending itself on the ecological zone. The harvest index (grain as part of total biomass) was highest under the tree canopy and in the zone furthest from the tree, an effect that according to the model reflects relative absence of stress factors in the later part of the growing season. While simulating the effects of different management options under current and future climates still requires further empirical corroboration and model improvement, the options of tree canopy pruning to reduce shading while maintaining tree root functions probably is key to parkland adaptation to a changing climate.
Soil organic matter (SOM) plays an important role in terrestrial ecosystems and agroecosystems. Changes in the agricultural sector in the Czech Republic within the past 25 years have had a negative impact on SOM content and contribute to gradual soil degradation. The aim of this study is to estimate the effect of long-term application of different mineral fertilizers (NPK) and organic manures (manure, cattle slurry) on soil chemical properties (quality of humus, available nutrients, and soil reaction). Soil samples were collected from Luvisol during two selected periods 1994–2003 and 2014–2016 from long-term field experiment carried out in Prague-Ruzyně (Czech Republic). Average annual temperature is 8.5 °C, and annual precipitations are 485 mm. Different fertilization regimes have been applied for 62 years. The crop rotation was as follows: cereals (45%), root crops (33%) and legumes (22%). Soil analysis—soil organic carbon (SOC) was determined by oxidimetric titration method. Short fractionation method for evaluation of humic substance (HS), humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA) content was used. Absorbance of HS in UV-VIS spectral range was measured by Varian Carry 50 Probe UV-VIS spectrometer. Degree of humification (DH) and color index (Q4/6) were calculated from fractional composition data. Soil reaction was measured by potentiometric method. Available nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium) were determined by Mehlich II and Mehlich I methods and by ICP-OES. For data analysis, the following are used: exploratory data analysis, ANOVA, and principal component analysis (PCA). PCA analysis differentiated fertilizers into two categories: (1) variant NPK (lower quality of humus)—higher acidity, lower SOC and HS content, predomination of FA, higher DH and lower content of available nutrients; (2) variants with organic manures (higher quality of humus)—lower acidity, higher SOC and HS content, predomination of HA, middle DH, and high content of available nutrients. The main result of presented study is to give a synthesis of effect of different type of fertilizers on a sustainable organic matter management in arable soils, with respect to yields, food security and adaptation to predict climate changes. Long-term application of mineral fertilizers (NPK) without organic matter input can accelerate humus mineralization and soil quality degradation with all negative consequences such as (nitrogen leaching, higher availability of toxic element for plants, slow energy for soil microorganisms etc.). Application of organic fertilizers (manure and cattle slurry) helps to achieve the long-term stable yields while maintaining soil at optimum quality (long-term sustainable management with SOM). Principal component analysis is a useful tool for evaluation of soil quality changes.
Future food and nutrition security is threatened by climate change, overexploitation of natural resources and pervasive social inequalities. Promising solutions are often technology-focused and not necessarily developed considering gender and social disparities. This paper addresses issues of gender and human development opportunities and trade-offs related to promoting improved technologies for agricultural development. We examined these aspects for conservation agriculture (CA) as part of a cropping system with nutrition- and climate-smart potential. The paper is based on a literature review and field experiences from Zambia and Mexico. Findings point up situations where the promotion of CA for smallholders in developing countries may have undesired effects from gender and human development perspectives, specifically relating to drudgery, nutrition and food security, residue use, assets, mechanization and extension. The direction and magnitude of potential trade-offs depend on the local context and the specific intervention. The analysis is followed by a discussion of opportunities and pathways for mitigating the trade-offs, including gender transformative approaches; engagement with alternative or non-traditional partners with different but complementary perspectives and strengths; “smart” combinations of technologies and approaches; and policies for inclusive development.
Over the last decades, desertification, drought and erratic rainfall have become much debated and distressing issues for Niger, given the country’s reliance on natural resources and agriculture for livelihood. A decisive answer on the causes and extent of both meteorological and soil water drought is therefore of importance to enable effective policy and resilience, but adaption to future climate change often entails the very same practices as rehabilitating degraded land to enhance water productivity. This paper investigates the extent of both meteorological and soil water drought in Niger by combining rainfall and soil water analysis and assesses the potential of various small scale WSC techniques to tackle crop growth limitations in Niger. It presents a trend analysis of rainfall and drought parameters and compares the effect of 5 treatments (zai + manure, demi-lunes + manure, no till with scarification + manure, control + manure and control) on crop performance and soil moisture profiles. The WSC-treatments zai and demi-lunes produce significantly higher yields due to increased soil moisture levels throughout the season. Besides the improved soil moisture conditions, the potential of WSC practices to increase the agronomic efficiency is also largely explained by their impact on the soil nutrient status.
Coastal saltmarsh ecosystems occupy only a small percentage of Earth’s land surface, yet contribute a wide range of ecosystem services that have significant global economic and societal value. These environments currently face significant challenges associated with climate change, sea level rise, development and water quality deterioration and are consequently the focus of a range of management schemes. Increasingly, soft engineering techniques such as managed realignment (MR) are being employed to restore and recreate these environments, driven primarily by the need for habitat (re)creation and sustainable coastal flood defence. Such restoration schemes also have the potential to provide additional ecosystem services including climate regulation and waste processing. However, these sites have frequently been physically impacted by their previous land use and there is a lack of understanding of how this ‘disturbance’ impacts the delivery of ecosystem services or of the complex linkages between ecological, physical and biogeochemical processes in restored systems. Through the exploration of current data this paper determines that hydrological, geomorphological and hydrodynamic functioning of restored sites may be significantly impaired with respects to natural ‘undisturbed’ systems and that links between morphology, sediment structure, hydrology and solute transfer are poorly understood. This has consequences for the delivery of seeds, the provision of abiotic conditions suitable for plant growth, the development of microhabitats and the cycling of nutrients/contaminants and may impact the delivery of ecosystem services including biodiversity, climate regulation and waste processing. This calls for a change in our approach to research in these environments with a need for integrated, interdisciplinary studies over a range of spatial and temporal scales incorporating both intensive and extensive research design.
Stormwater wetlands (CSWs) have become one of the more popular SCMs, offering a hybrid between larger detention technologies such as wet ponds and newer green infrastructure technologies. A well-functioning stormwater wetland will be a resilient, diverse ecosystem that includes many plant and animal species. This research looks to investigate whether or not wetlands need regular maintenance to sustain their treatment capacity. The research site is located in River Bend, NC. Flow-weighted samples, rainfall, and hydrologic data are being collected at both the inlet and outlet from April 2012 – April 2013, aiming a minimum of 15 storms spaced throughout the year. Monitoring of phosphorus deposition consists of taking soil samples and analyzing for Soil Test Phosphorous. These monitoring results will be compared with the results of a study that was conducted at the same site for a one-year period immediately following construction completion. This will allow researchers to see the effects of no maintenance plan (or activity) and time on wetland performance in removing phosphorus and achieving other wetland performance goals. Vegetation in a CSW is essential for nutrient removal and thermal pollution reduction. However, a portion of the storage volume designed to retain the water quality event is occupied by vegetation, which may result in the CSW being undersized from a hydrologic perspective – especially in unmaintained, mature systems. The fraction of the volume associated with vegetation mass was unknown, and designers have been unsure as to (1) how they should account for volume occupied by vegetation and (2) whether this was a significant design issue. Twelve stormwater wetlands and one hybrid wet pond in North Carolina were sampled to assess their percent vegetative occupancy by volume. A conservative recommended factor of safety is 1.025. Species-specific factors of safety (FOS) were also calculated; at the 30 cm temporary pool elevation, the Iris (Iris spp.) FOS was highest at 1.020 and the mixed vegetation FOS was lowest at 1.005. When designing a wetland, a more specific FOS may be calculated using a weighted average of the FOS for each species in the planting plan. The outcomes of this research allow designers to account for the volume taken up by emergent wetland vegetation; however, the uncertainty in other factors such as discrepancies between designed and as-built bathymetry probably have a greater impact on the design volume loss when compared with vegetation occupancy (<2%). © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.