Bibliography

711 publications found

• The economic costs of planting, preserving, and managing the world’s forests to mitigate climate change

  Austin, K. G. et al. Nature Communications (2020). Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-19578-z

  Abstract

  Forests are critical for stabilizing our climate, but costs of mitigation over space, time, and stakeholder group remain uncertain. Using the Global Timber Model, we project mitigation potential and costs for four abatement activities across 16 regions for carbon price scenarios of $5–$100/tCO2. We project 0.6–6.0 GtCO2 yr−1 in global mitigation by 2055 at costs of 2–393 billion USD yr−1, with avoided tropical deforestation comprising 30–54% of total mitigation. Higher prices incentivize larger mitigation proportions via rotation and forest management activities in temperate and boreal biomes. Forest area increases 415–875 Mha relative to the baseline by 2055 at prices $35–$100/tCO2, with intensive plantations comprising <7% of this increase. Mitigation costs borne by private land managers comprise less than one-quarter of total costs. For forests to contribute ~10% of mitigation needed to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, carbon prices will need to reach $281/tCO2 in 2055.

  Climate change mitigationForest

• Transdisciplinary science for improved conservation outcomes

  Margules, C. et al. Environmental Conservation (2020). Review.
  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0376892920000338

  Abstract

  Major advances in biology and ecology have sharpened our understanding of what the goals of biodiversity conservation might be, but less progress has been made on how to achieve conservation in the complex, multi-sectoral world of human affairs. The failure to deliver conservation outcomes is especially severe in the rapidly changing landscapes of tropical low-income countries. We describe five techniques we have used to complement and strengthen long-term attempts to achieve conservation outcomes in the landscapes and seascapes of such regions; these are complex social-ecological systems shaped by interactions between biological, ecological and physical features mediated by the actions of people. Conservation outcomes occur as a result of human decisions and the governance arrangements that guide change. However, much conservation science in these countries is not rooted in a deep understanding of how these social-ecological systems work and what really determines the behaviour of the people whose decisions shape the future of landscapes. We describe five scientific practices that we have found to be effective in building relationships with actors in landscapes and influencing their behaviour in ways that reconcile conservation and development. We have used open-ended inductive enquiry, theories of change, simulation models, network analysis and multi-criteria analysis. These techniques are all widely known and well tested, but seldom figure in externally funded conservation projects. We have used these techniques to complement and strengthen existing interventions of international conservation agencies. These five techniques have proven effective in achieving deeper understanding of context, engagement with all stakeholders, negotiation of shared goals and continuous learning and adaptation.

  Ecosystem health

• Agricultural diversification promotes multiple ecosystem services without compromising yield

  Tamburini, G. et al. Science Advances (2020). Meta-Analysis. Review. Systematic Review.
  https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/45/eaba1715

  Abstract

  Enhancing biodiversity in cropping systems is suggested to promote ecosystem services, thereby reducing dependency on agronomic inputs while maintaining high crop yields. We assess the impact of several diversification practices in cropping systems on above- and belowground biodiversity and ecosystem services by reviewing 98 meta-analyses and performing a second-order meta-analysis based on 5160 original studies comprising 41,946 comparisons between diversified and simplified practices. Overall, diversification enhances biodiversity, pollination, pest control, nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and water regulation without compromising crop yields. Practices targeting aboveground biodiversity boosted pest control and water regulation, while those targeting belowground biodiversity enhanced nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and water regulation. Most often, diversification practices resulted in win-win support of services and crop yields. Variability in responses and occurrence of trade-offs highlight the context dependency of outcomes. Widespread adoption of diversification practices shows promise to contribute to biodiversity conservation and food security from local to global scales.

  Ecosystem healthFood and water securityArtificial Landscapes - Terrestrial

• Pitfalls of Tree Planting Show Why We Need People-Centered Natural Climate Solutions

  Fleischman, F. et al. BioScience (2020). Perspective. Policy Brief.
  https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa094

  Abstract

  Scientists, corporations, mystics, and movie stars have convinced policymakers around the world that a massive campaign to plant trees
  should be an essential element of global climate policy. Public dialogue
  has emphasized potential benefits of tree planting while downplaying
  pitfalls and limitations that are well established by social and ecological
  research. We argue that if natural climate solutions are to succeed while
  economies decarbonize (Griscom et al. 2017), policymakers must recognize and avoid the expense, risk, and damage that poorly designed and hastily implemented tree plantings impose on ecosystems and people.

  We propose that people-centered climate policies should be developed
  that support the social, economic, and political conditions that are compatible with the conservation of Earth’s diversity of terrestrial ecosystems. Such a shift in focus, away from tree planting and toward people and ecosystems, must be rooted in the understanding that natural climate solutions can only be effective if they respond to the needs of the rural and indigenous people who manage ecosystems for their livelihoods.

  To motivate this shift in focus, we highlight ten pitfalls and misperceptions that arise when large-scale tree planting campaigns fail to acknowledge the social and ecological complexities of the landscapes they aim to transform. We then describe more ecologically effective and socially just strategies to improve climate mitigation efforts.

  Climate change mitigationEcosystem healthHuman well-being & developmentForest

• A review of nature-based solutions for urban water management in European circular cities: a critical assessment based on case studies and literature

  Volkan Oral, H. et al. Blue-Green Systems (2020). Review.
  https://doi.org/10.2166/bgs.2020.932

  Abstract

  Nature-based solutions (NBS) can protect, manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems. They are a multidisciplinary, integrated approach to address societal challenges and some natural hazards effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits. NBS applications can be easily noticed in circular cities, establishing an urban system that is regenerative and accessible. This paper aims to offer a review on NBS for urban water management from the literature and some relevant projects running within the COST Action ‘Implementing nature-based solutions for creating a resourceful circular city’. The method used in the study is based on a detailed tracking of specific keywords in the literature using Google Scholar, ResearchGate, Academia.edu, ScienceDirect and Scopus. Based on this review, three main applications were identified: (i) flood and drought protection; (ii) the water-food-energy nexus; and (iii) water purification. The paper shows that NBS provide additional benefits, such as improving water quality, increasing biodiversity, obtaining social co-benefits, improving urban microclimate, and the reduction of energy consumption by improving indoor climate. The paper concludes that a systemic change to NBS should be given a higher priority and be preferred over conventional water infrastructure.

  Climate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionFood and water securityArtificial Landscapes - Terrestrial

• An assessment framework for climate-proof nature-based solutions

  Calliari et al. Science of the Total Environment (2019). Policy Brief.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.341

  Abstract

  Raising interest in ‘nature-based solutions’ (NBS) has inspired attempts to organise their principles and qualities within comprehensive and internally consistent evaluation frameworks, so as to demonstrate the superior per- formance of ‘working with nature’. However, the proposed frameworks stop short of taking into account the changing conditions in which NBS are set to operate. Climate change, in particular, can alter ecosystems and their services, and may undermine the performance of green solutions that rely on them. We present here a ‘dy- namic’ assessment framework that explicitly accounts for the impact of climate change on the effectiveness of the proposed NBS. The framework is based on an innovative approach that integrates system analysis and backcasting. Although it has not yet been applied to the NBS context, backcasting is well-suited to seize the trans- formational character of NBS, as it encourages ‘breakthrough’ leaps rather than incremental improvements. Our framework factors in the multifunctional character of NBS and is designed to capture associated direct benefits/ costs and co-benefits/costs. It is meant to be applied ex ante to ideally support the choice between innovative NBS and traditional options, in an effort to respond to the societal challenges identified by the EU Research & Innova- tion agenda on the environment.

  Nature-based solutions in generalClimate change adaptation

• Constructed Wetlands for Resource Recovery in Developing Countries

  Avellán, T. and Gremillion, P. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2019). Review.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.09.024

  Abstract

  Constructed wetlands (CW) are effective in treating wastewater, particularly in settings that require low tech-nology and low maintenance as operational constraints. Biomass harvested from CW can be used as a renewableenergy source and treated effluent can provide irrigation for agricultural uses. Biomass yields for four selectedwetland plants in CW, namelyPhragmitesspp.,Typhaspp.,A. donax,andC. papyrus, ranged from an average ofabout 1500g of dry mass per square meter (g/m2) forTyphaspp., up to 6000g/m2forA.donax. The energy yieldfor direct combustion of these plants occupied a narrow range, averaging about 18 megajoules per kilogram ofdry mass (MJ/kg) for all plant types, a comparable amount toAcacia spp. Methane yields varied from about170–360L of methane (normalised to standard conditions) per kilogram of dry mass (LN/kg). 1m2of CWplanted withA. donaxcan produce on average 110MJ through direct combustion or 1660L of methane frombiogas production. In a village of 200 people the biomass from a CW planted withTyphaspp. can reduce cookingfuel needs by 4–55% and therefore save up to 12ha of forest per year. The water footprint of these plants wasmeasured as the percent loss in water in the CW from evapotranspiration (ET). Under a fixed set of assumptionson climate and operation, the water used through ET, the CW could deliver from 64% to 76% of the influentwater for subsequent use. In summary, CW have the potential to offset energy and irrigation needs at scalesranging from small communities to peri-urban areas. Constructed wetlands used to treat wastewater have thepotential to provide a sustainable bioenergy source without placing burdens on water resources or displacingother food or energy crops.

  Infrastructure-related approachesClimate change mitigationFood and water securityWetland

• Social-ecological and technological factors moderate the value of urban nature

  Keeler, B. L. et al. Nature Sustainability (2019). Policy Brief. Review.
  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-018-0202-1

  Abstract

  Urban nature has the potential to improve air and water quality, mitigate flooding, enhance physical and mental health, and promote social and cultural well-being. However, the value of urban ecosystem services remains highly uncertain, especially across the diverse social, ecological and technological contexts represented in cities around the world. We review and synthesize research on the contextual factors that moderate the value and equitable distribution of ten of the most commonly cited urban ecosystem services. Our work helps to identify strategies to more efficiently, effectively and equitably implement nature-based solutions.

  Infrastructure-related approachesNature-based solutions in generalClimate change mitigationDisaster risk reductionFood and water securityHuman well-being & developmentArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialCoastlineWetland

• Salt marshes for flood risk reduction: Quantifying long-term effectiveness and life-cycle costs

  Vuik, V. et al. Ocean and Coastal Management (2019). Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2019.01.010

  Abstract

  Flood risks are increasing worldwide due to climate change and ongoing economic and demographic development in coastal areas. Salt marshes can function as vegetated foreshores that reduce wave loads on coastal structures such as dikes and dams, thereby mitigating current and future flood risk. This paper aims to quantify long-term (100 years) flood risk reduction by salt marshes. Dike-foreshore configurations are assessed by coupled calculations of wave energy dissipation over the foreshore, sediment accretion under sea level rise, the probability of dike failure, and life-cycle costs. Rising sea levels lead to higher storm waves, and increasing probabilities of dike failure by wave overtopping. This study shows that marsh elevation change due to sediment accretion mitigates the increase in wave height, thereby elongating the lifetime of a dike-foreshore system. Further, different human interventions on foreshores are assessed in this paper: realization of a vegetated foreshore via nourishment, addition of a detached earthen breakwater, addition of an unnaturally high zone, or foreshore build-up by application of brushwood dams that enhance sediment accretion. The performance of these strategies is compared to dike heightening for the physical boundary conditions at an exposed dike along the Dutch Wadden Sea. Cost-effectiveness depends on three main factors. First, wave energy dissipation, which is lower for salt marshes with a natural elevation in the intertidal zone, when compared to foreshores with a high zone or detached breakwater. Second, required costs for construction and maintenance. Continuous maintenance costs and delayed effects on flood risk make sheltering structures less attractive from a flood risk perspective. Third, economic value of the protected area, where foreshores are particularly cost-effective for low economic value. Concluding, life-cycle cost analysis demonstrates that, within certain limits, foreshore construction can be more cost-effective than dike heightening.

  Ecosystem-based disaster risk reductionInfrastructure-related approachesNature-based solutions in generalClimate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionCoastline

• Maintaining Tropical Beaches with Seagrass and Algae: A Promising Alternative to Engineering Solutions

  James, R. K. et al. BioScience (2019). Original Research. Review.
  https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biy154

  Abstract

  Tropical beaches provide coastal flood protection, income from tourism, and habitat for flagship species. They urgently need protection from erosion, which is being exacerbated by changing climate and coastal development. Traditional coastal engineering solutions are expensive, provide unstable temporary solutions, and often disrupt natural sediment transport. Instead, natural foreshore stabilization and nourishment may provide a sustainable and resilient long-term solution. Field flume and ecosystem process measurements, along with data from the literature, show that sediment stabilization by seagrass in combination with sediment-producing calcifying algae in the foreshore form an effective mechanism for maintaining tropical beaches worldwide. The long-term efficacy of this type of nature-based beach management is shown at a large scale by comparing vegetated and unvegetated coastal profiles. We argue that preserving and restoring vegetated beach foreshore ecosystems offers a viable, self-sustaining alternative to traditional engineering solutions, increasing the resilience of coastal areas to climate change.

  Ecosystem-based disaster risk reductionEcosystem-based adaptationClimate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionCoastline

• Enabling Environments? Examining Social Co-Benefits of Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Climate Change in Sri Lanka

  Woroniecki, S. Sustainability (2019). Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030772

  Abstract

  Climate change vulnerability and social marginalisation are often interrelated in and through environments. Variations in climate change adaptation practice and research account for such social-ecological relations to varying degrees. Advocates of ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation (EbA) claim that it delivers social co-benefits to marginalised groups, although scant empirical evidence supports such claims. I investigate these claims in two EbA interventions in Sri Lanka, interpreting social benefits through an empowerment lens. I use qualitative methods such as focus groups and narrative interviews to study the conduct and context of the interventions. In both cases, marginalised people’s own empowered adaptive strategies reflect how power relations and vulnerabilities relate to dynamic ecologies. The findings show that EbA enabled social benefits for marginalised groups, especially through support to common-pool resource management institutions and the gendered practices of home gardens. Such conduct was embedded within, but mostly peripheral to, broader and deeper contestations of power. Nevertheless, projects acted as platforms for renegotiating these power relations, including through acts of resistance. The results call for greater recognition of the ways that marginalised groups relate to ecology within empowered adaptive strategies, whilst also highlighting the need to recognise the diverse interests and power relations that cut across the conduct and contexts of these nominally ecosystem-based interventions.

  Ecosystem-based adaptationClimate change adaptationHuman well-being & developmentArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialForest

• Evaluating natural infrastructure for flood management within the watersheds of selected global cities

  Gunnell, K. et al. Science of the Total Environment (2019). Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.212

  Abstract

  Cities are dependent on their upstream watersheds for storage and gradual release of water into river systems. These watersheds act as important flood mitigation infrastructure, providing an essential ecosystem service. In this paper we use metrics from the WaterWorld model to examine the flood management-relevant natural infrastructure of the upstream watersheds of selected global cities. These metrics enable the characterisation of different types, magnitudes and geographical distributions of potential natural flood storage. The storages are categorised as either green (forest canopy, wetland and soil) or blue (water body and floodplain) storages and the proportion of green to blue indicates how different city upstream basin contexts provide different types and levels of storage which may buffer flood risk. We apply the WaterWorld method for examining flood risk as the ratio of accumulated modelled annual runoff volume to accumulated available green and blue water storage capacity. The aim of these metrics is to highlight areas where there is more runoff than storage capacity and thus where the maintenance or restoration of further natural infrastructure (such as canopy cover, wetlands and soil) could aid in storing more water and thus better alleviate flood risks. Such information is needed by urban planners, city authorities and governments to help prepare cities for climate change impacts.

  Area-based approachesEcological restorationInfrastructure-related approachesNature-based solutions in generalClimate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialForestMontaneWetland

• Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions

  Cohen-Shacham, E. et al. Environmental Science and Policy (2019). Policy Brief.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014

  Abstract

  Despite substantial increases in the scope and magnitude of biodiversity conservation and ecological restoration, there remains ongoing degradation of natural resources that adversely affects both biodiversity and human well- being. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) can be an effective framework for reversing this trend, by increasing the alignment between conservation and sustainable development objectives. However, unless there is clarity on its evolution, definition and principles, and relationship with related approaches, it will not be possible to develop evidence-based standards and guidelines, or to implement, assess, improve and upscale NbS interventions globally. In order to address this gap, we present the definition and principles underpinning the NbS framework, recently adopted by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and compare it to (1) the Ecosystem Approach that was the foundation for developing the NbS definitional framework, and (2) four specific eco- system-based approaches (Forest Landscape Restoration, Ecosystem-based Adaptation, Ecological Restoration and Protected Areas) that can be considered as falling under the NbS framework. Although we found substantial alignment between NbS principles and the principles of the other frameworks, three of the eight NbS principles stand out from other approaches: NbS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner with other solutions; NbS should be applied at a landscape scale; and, NbS are integral to the overall design of policies, measures and actions, to address societal challenges. Reversely, concepts such as adaptive management/governance, effectiveness, uncertainty, multi-stakeholder participation, and temporal scale are present in other frameworks but not captured at all or detailed enough in the NbS principles. This critical analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the NbS principles can inform the review and revision of principles supporting specific types of NbS (such as the approaches reviewed here), as well as serve as the foundation for the development of standards for the successful implementation of NbS.

  Area-based approachesEcological restorationEcosystem-based adaptationForest landscape restorationNature-based solutions in generalClimate change adaptationClimate change mitigationDisaster risk reductionEcosystem healthFood and water securityHuman well-being & development

• Ecosystem services by birds and bees to coffee in a changing climate: A review of coffee berry borer control and pollination

  Chain-Guadarrama, A. et al. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment (2019). Review.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2019.04.011

  Abstract

  Coffee is one of the most important tropical crops on earth, considering both its gross production value and the number of families that depend on it for their livelihoods. Coffee also grows within some of the world’s most biodiverse habitats, in areas predicted to experience severe climate change impacts. Like many other crops, coffee benefits from several ecosystem services (ES) that provide important inputs or conditions for production. Given coffee’s strong interactions with conservation, livelihoods, and climate change, it is important to understand the roles of biodiversity-regulated ES to coffee and how they are likely to change under future climates. Here we review the available literature on the provision of two essential and interacting ES that regulate coffee production: control of a beetle pest by birds and pollination by bees. Studies show that bird and bee communities provide pest control and pollination services that improve coffee quantity and quality, benefiting coffee farmers whose livelihoods depend on this crop. The literature also shows that a variety of plot, farm, and landscape management practices that support resources for bees and birds can enhance these ES. We also evaluate how these ES and their interactions may change under future climate change. Several studies have estimated likely climate impacts on coffee per se, but few have investigated climate vulnerability of pollination and pest control ES. Even less studies have quantified interactions between these ES. Although evidence is incomplete, managing coffee farms as diversified agroforestry systems could improve climate resilience of coffee cropping and communities of birds and bees, and therefore help farming families adapt to their changing environment. Based on our review, we identify six critical research priorities in this active area of study. Filling knowledge gaps would advance our understanding of interactions among landscapes, ES, and climate change, and would support climate adaptation for the millions of households whose livelihoods depend on coffee.

  Ecological restorationEcosystem-based adaptationNature-based agricultural systemsClimate change adaptationEcosystem healthHuman well-being & developmentArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialForestMontane

• Linking management planning for coastal wetlands to potential future wave attenuation under a range of relative sea-level rise scenarios

  Commagere Hijuelos, A. et al. PloS one (2019). Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216695

  Abstract

  Understanding changes in wave attenuation by emergent vegetation as wetlands degrade or accrete over time is crucial for incorporation of wetlands into holistic coastal risk management. Linked SLAMM and XBeach models were used to investigate potential future changes in wave attenuation over a 50-year period in a degrading, subtropical wetland and a prograding, temperate wetland. These contrasting systems also have differing management contexts and were contrasted to demonstrate how the linked models can provide management-relevant insights. Morphological development of wetlands for different scenarios of sea-level rise and accretion was simulated with SLAMM and then coupled with different vegetation characteristics to predict the influence on future wave attenuation using XBeach. The geomorphological context, subsidence, and accretion resulted in large predicted reductions in the extent of vegetated land (e.g., wetland) and changes in wave height reduction potential across the wetland. These were exacerbated by increases in sea-level from +0.217 m to +0.386 m over a 50-year period, especially at the lowest accretion rates in the degrading wetland. Mangrove vegetation increased wave attenuation within the degrading, subtropical, saline wetland, while grazing reduced wave attenuation in the temperate, prograding wetland. Coastal management decisions and actions, related to coastal vegetation type and structure, have the potential to change future wave attenuation at a spatial scale relevant to coastal protection planning. Therefore, a coastal management approach that includes disaster risk reduction, biodiversity, and climate change, can be informed by coastal modeling tools, such as those demonstrated here for two contrasting case studies.

  Ecosystem-based disaster risk reductionEcological restorationEcosystem-based adaptationNature-based agricultural systemsClimate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionCoastline

• Methodology for mapping the national ecological network to mainland Portugal: A planning tool towards a green infrastructure

  Cunha, N.S. and Magalhães, M.R. Ecological Indicators (2019). Methodological Article. Original Research.
  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.04.050

  Abstract

  The concept and establishment of Ecological Networks (EN) have been seen as a solution towards nature conservation strategies targeting biodiversity and ecological connectivity. Within this, the EN assumed a holistic view of land-use planning and biodiversity conservation as the core of the wider Green Infrastructure (GI) framework. The EN is considered a spatial concept recognized as a system of landscape structures or ecosystems, and a strategically connected fundamental infrastructure of abiotic and biotic systems, underlying the provision of multiple functions valuable to society. This concept moves beyond traditional approaches of “nature protection and preservation”, (re)focusing on the ecosystemic approach and the “continuum naturale”, emphasising the quality or potentiality of physical components, allowing the articulation with the nature conservation and at-risk areas. Portugal has long had legislation in place meant to protect the natural resources. Although the environmental policies are sectoral and unarticulated, and the environmental data is dispersed and absent. In addition, this study shows that the existing protected areas in Portugal, namely Natura 2000 and classified protected areas, are insufficient to ensure landscape ecological balance and avoid fragmentation. The main goal is to develop a methodology to map a National Ecological Network (NEN) for mainland Portugal, establish the theoretical framework of the EN/GI, by identifying and mapping the most valuable and sensitive areas that guarantee the ecosystem functioning through a multi-level ecological evaluation criteria that integrate the physical and biological systems. The Portuguese NEN map, with a 25 m spatial resolution, integrates in a single tool the Portuguese environmental policies more effectively, in order to facilitate its understanding and application into planning. Regarding the EN mapping method, it was used a GIS-based model made up of a sequence of analyses and evaluations that are driven by a GIS supported assessment of several indices/models used for each EN component. These NEN components were studied individually and collectively and the results, hierarchized in two levels, show that most of the ecological components do not overlap. The NEN1 has high biodiversity and ecological value, which means they are more vulnerable to anthropogenic activity. NEN1 covers a total of 67 % of the mainland, yet as of 2018, only 25 % is protected in nature conservation areas. Priority of action must be given to NEN1 in order to avoid/decrease landscape fragmentation, environmental risks, and natural disaster prevention. This paper contributes to the understanding of the NEN importance as an ecologically based tool towards a more sustainable landscape planning, and the basis of the development plans at national, regional and local levels in an integrated manner, instead of a compilation of disassociated often-contradictory planning tools. The benefits of a Portuguese NEN into a GI development and part of a (broader) nature base solutions by increasing the ecosystems quality and become less dependent on economic and social activities, helping in the restoration of degraded ecosystems and environmental risk prevention. Moreover, it represents the first attempt to map Portuguese EN, and addresses the lack of mapping and the inconsistent EN criteria. It is available online at http://epic-webgis-portugal.isa.ulisboa.pt.

  Area-based approachesInfrastructure-related approachesNature-based solutions in generalDisaster risk reductionEcosystem healthFood and water securityHuman well-being & developmentArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialCoastlineForestGrasslandMarineMontaneWetland