Bibliography
Welcome to our interactive bibliography. Here you can explore publications relating to Nature-based Solutions and their potential to address societal challenges, including climate change adaptation & mitigation, disaster risk reduction, ecosystem health, food & water security, and human wellbeing & development. For papers and other outputs directly produced by the Nature-based Solutions Initiative please visit our outputs page.
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711 publications found
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Nature-based agricultural solutions: Scaling perennial grains across Africa
Environmental Research (2017). Original Research.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935117315712?via%3DihubAbstract
Modern plant breeding tends to focus on maximizing yield, with one of the most ubiquitous implementations being shorter-duration crop varieties. It is indisputable that these breeding efforts have resulted in greater yields in ideal circumstances; however, many farmed locations across Africa suffer from one or more conditions that limit the efficacy of modern short-duration hybrids. In view of global change and increased necessity for intensification, perennial grains and long-duration varieties offer a nature-based solution for improving farm productivity and smallholder livelihoods in suboptimal agricultural areas. Specific conditions where perennial grains should be considered include locations where biophysical and social constraints reduce agricultural system efficiency, and where conditions are optimal for crop growth. Using a time-series of remotely-sensed data, we locate the marginal agricultural lands of Africa, identifying suboptimal temperature and precipitation conditions for the dominant crop, i.e., maize, as well as optimal climate conditions for two perennial grains, pigeonpea and sorghum. We propose that perennial grains offer a lower impact, sustainable nature-based solution to this subset of climatic drivers of marginality. Using spatial analytic methods and satellite-derived climate information, we demonstrate the scalability of perennial pigeonpea and sorghum across Africa. As a nature-based solution, we argue that perennial grains offer smallholder farmers of marginal lands a sustainable solution for enhancing resilience and minimizing risk in confronting global change, while mitigating social and edaphic drivers of low and variable production.
Nature-based agricultural systemsClimate change adaptationFood and water securityArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialMarine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change
PNAS (2017). Perspective.
http://www.pnas.org/content/114/24/6167Abstract
Strong decreases in greenhouse gas emissions are required to meet the reduction trajectory resolved within the 2015 Paris Agreement. However, even these decreases will not avert serious stress and damage to life on Earth, and additional steps are needed to boost the resilience of ecosystems, safeguard their wildlife, and protect their capacity to supply vital goods and services. We discuss how well-managed marine reserves may help marine ecosystems and people adapt to five prominent impacts of climate change: acidification, sea-level rise, intensification of storms, shifts in species distribution, and decreased productivity and oxygen availability, as well as their cumulative effects. We explore the role of managed ecosystems in mitigating climate change by promoting carbon sequestration and storage and by buffering against uncertainty in management, environmental fluctuations, directional change, and extreme events. We highlight both strengths and limitations and conclude that marine reserves are a viable low-tech, cost-effective adaptation strategy that would yield multiple cobenefits from local to global scales, improving the outlook for the environment and people into the future
Area-based approachesEcosystem-based adaptationEcosystem-based mitigationClimate change adaptationClimate change mitigationDisaster risk reductionMarineClimate change adaptation trends in small island developing states
Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change (2017). Meta-Analysis.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11027-015-9693-5Abstract
Small island developing states (SIDS) are among the countries in the world that are most vulnerable to climate change and required to adapt to its impacts. Yet, there is little information in the academic literature about how SIDS are adapting to climate change, across multiple countries and geographic regions. This paper helps to fill this gap. Using a sample of 16 countries across the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and South China Sea, Caribbean and Pacific regions, this study has two main aims, to identify (1) national-level adaptation trends across climate, climate-induced and non-climate-induced vulnerabilities, sectors and actors, as reported in National Communications (NCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and (2) typologies of national-level adaptation actions in SIDS. It identifies, codes and assesses 977 adaptation actions. These actions were reported as addressing 47 climate and climate-induced vulnerabilities and 50 non-climate-induced vulnerabilities and were undertaken in 37 sectors by 34 actors. The paper proposes five typologies of adaptation actions for SIDS, based on actions reported by SIDS. It specifically explores the implications of its findings for global adaptation strategies. As this work establishes a baseline of adaptation action in SIDS, it can assist national governments to gauge their adaptation progress, identify gaps in their adaptation effort and, thereafter, develop appropriate strategies for filling the gaps. It can also assist donors, whether bilateral or multilateral, to make more ‘climate-smart’ investment decisions by being able to identify the adaptation needs that are not being met in SIDS.
Ecosystem-based adaptationClimate change adaptationDisaster risk reductionFood and water securityHuman well-being & developmentEcosystem-based adaptation to climate change: concept, scalability and a role for conservation science
Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation (2017). Perspective.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1679007316301621Abstract
Societal adaptation to climate change requires measures that simultaneously reduce poverty, protect or restore biodiversity and ecosystem services, and remove atmospheric greenhouse gases. Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change is the type of adaptation that aims to combine these outcomes and is particularly relevant to developing nations that safeguard most of the planetary biodiversity and healthy ecosystems. Although conceptually new, ecosystem-based adaptation is fastly gaining traction both as a research arena and as an integrated policy instrument. This paper aims to revisit this concept and to discuss the science and policy challenges faced by it. It argues that ecosystem-based adaptation is a policy mix that promotes adaptive transition, which is a step towards sustainability transitions. It faces two major challenges in promoting transitions towards adaptation and sustainability. First, research on ecosystem-based adaptation mostly takes place within the socio-ecological systems framework, which is often carried out in isolation from socio-technical systems research. It is widely recognized that both types of research should be integrated, for the benefit of science and policy-making, and the paper discusses the potential of ecosystem-based adaptation in providing such bridge. Second, there is a divide between global and local research and policy, while at local level this divide is related to the setting (e.g., coastal, urban, rural). The resulting mosaic of information lacks integration, which hinders scalability of actions and policies. Finally, I examine the opportunity for ecological and conservation scientists to interact with social, economic and political scientists on ecosystem-based adaptation research, and discuss how timely this opportunity is for Brazil.
Ecosystem-based adaptationClimate change adaptationNature-based solutions in flood risk management – Buzzword or innovation?
Journal of Flood Risk Management (2017). Perspective.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfr3.12318/abstractAbstract
The brief look at NBSs from the viewpoint of flood risk management suggests that the relatively new concept seems to be worthwhile for further consideration in both science and practice. Not at least as the need for a close cooperation between various scientific disciplines and multiple sectoral and local stakeholders seems to open up some room for joint innovation.
Ecosystem-based disaster risk reductionDisaster risk reductionGreen Infrastructure Recovery: Analysis of the Influence of Back-to-Back Rainfall Events
Journal of Sustainable Water in the Built Environment (2017). Original Research.
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/JSWBAY.0000819Abstract
A core concept in stormwater green infrastructure (GI) design is whether a system will meet its rainfall-runoff volume capture goals within a period of time after a previous event. In GI design, it is necessary not to view storms as singular, isolated events, but rather as a series of events, some of which are occurring within short durations and are often termed back-to-back events. This paper demonstrates the statistical rarity of back-to-back rainfall events that impact GI performance and analyzes the expected impact on the design of several GI systems for the mid-Atlantic region. Twenty-four scenarios were evaluated for common design events (2.5, 3.8, and 8.1 cm), followed by a substantial subsequent event (50-100% of the original storm volume) that occurred within the period where it would be expected that the GI system would be recovering capacity (24, 48, 72, or 96 h interevent period). The results indicated that only four scenarios had an annual average occurrence greater than one time per year, and 9 of the 24 scenarios had less than 0.1 annual average occurrences. Simple, conservative models of a bioinfiltration rain garden and green roof demonstrated that system storage capacity is almost always restored by infiltration and evapotranspiration within the prescribed interevent drawdown period, thus back-to-back events are not a primary concern. This finding was further confirmed with field site evidence from three GI sites at Villanova University, which regularly captured more than the design rainfall volume and only infrequently had minimal discharges for rainfalls smaller than design. An exception to this finding was that a green roof with a drainage layer did not exceed its design capacity because the drainage layer conveyed stored water away from the GI system before evapotranspiration could contribute to volume removal. These results demonstrate that the likelihood of large back-to-back events is very low, as is the chance of the design runoff volume being exceeded. This paper provides evidence that the existing required drawdown period for GI design can be overly restrictive for a system to meet its volume control goals, which may inhibit optimal implementation. The findings support more appropriate design through the development of regionally specific required drawdown times based on storm event frequency.
Infrastructure-related approachesDisaster risk reductionArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialSynergies and trade-offs between nature conservation and climate policy: Insights from the “Natural Capital Germany – TEEB DE” study
Ecosystem Services (2017). Review.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212041616303862Abstract
Ecosystem-based approaches provide opportunities for climate policy to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, to expand the adaptive capacities and resilience of land systems to a changing climate, and to simultaneously protect biodiversity and ecosystems services (ESS). However, knowledge about the economic benefits and cost-efficiency of ecosystem-based approaches is still limited. The objective of this paper is to enhance understanding of synergies and trade-offs between climate policy related measures and nature conservation and how ecosystem-based approaches can contribute to both climate as well as biodiversity and ESS conservation goals, through overall economic analyses to inform balanced decision making. The paper builds upon the current state of knowledge as brought together by contributors to the German national TEEB-study “Natural Capital and Climate Policy – Synergies and Conflicts”. We present options and lessons learned from major land-use sectors of high relevance for ecosystem-based approaches to climate change, namely agriculture, peatlands, forests, wetlands and coastal and marine ecosystems. Based on these assessments, we argue that successful implementation of an ecosystem based climate policy requires effective coordination and coherence between sectors and their respective policies, for example agriculture, forestry and energy. We identify specific targets for an ecosystem-based climate policy and options for achieving this coherent implementation.
Ecosystem-based adaptationEcosystem-based managementEcosystem-based mitigationClimate change adaptationClimate change mitigationArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialCoastlineForestGrasslandMarineWetlandEcological Protection and Restoration Program Reduced Grazing Pressure in the Three-River Headwaters Region, China
Rangeland Ecology and Management (2017). Original Research.
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1016/j.rama.2017.05.001Abstract
The Ecological Protection and Restoration Program (EPRP), initiated in 2005 in the Three-River Headwaters (TRH, the headwaters of the Yangtze, Yellow, and Lantsang rivers) region, is the largest project for nature reserve protection and reconstruction in China. This massive effort was expected to improve the trade-off between grassland productivity and grazing pressure in the region. However, the impacts of EPRP on forage supply and livestock carrying capacity remain poorly understood. Using the Global Production Efficiency Model and grazing pressure index, we investigated the influences of the EPRP by comparing the grassland yield and grazing pressure index before (1988-2004) and after (2005-2012) implementation of the program. Vegetation cover, represented by the annual maximum Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), increased by 11.2% after implementation of the EPRP. The increase of NDVI, together with increasing temperature and precipitation, led to a 30.3% increase of the mean annual grassland yield in 2005-2012 relative to that in 1988-2004 (694 kg ha(-1) vs. 533 kg ha(-1) dry matter). We show that grazing pressure was largely alleviated by the EPRP due to increased grassland yield and decreased livestock number. This was indicated by a 36.1% decline of the grazing pressure index. The effects of the EPRP varied spatially. As examples, there were larger increases of grassland yield in the southeast of the region dominated by alpine meadow and greater reduction of grazing pressure in the central and eastern parts. Nevertheless, the ecological effectiveness of the EPRP may vary with the measures used and is indicated to be coupled with climate change. This calls for more detailed comparison and attribution analyses to predict the ongoing consequences of the EPRP in order to attain sustainable implementation of restoration practices in the TRH region.
Area-based approachesEcological restorationEcosystem healthFood and water securityGrasslandSoil organic carbon dynamics in Xilingol grassland of northern China induced by the Beijing-Tianjin Sand Source Control Program
Frontiers of Earth Science (2017). Original Research.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11707-016-0589-9Abstract
To mitigate impacts of sandstorms on northern China, the Chinese government launched the Beijing–Tianjin Sand Source Control Program (BTSSCP) in 2000. The associated practices (i.e., cultivation, enclosure, and aerial seeding) were expected to greatly enhance grassland carbon sequestration. However, the BTSSCP-induced soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics remain elusive at a regional level. Using the Xilingol League in Inner Mongolia for a case study, we examined the impacts from 2000 to 2006 of the BTSSCP on SOC stocks using the IPCC carbon budget inventory method. Results indicated that over all practices SOC storage increased by 1.7%, but there were large differences between practices. SOC increased most rapidly at the rate of 0.3 Mg C·ha–1·yr–1 under cultivation, but decreased significantly under aerial seeding with moderate or heavy grazing (0.3 vs.0.6 Mg C·ha–1·yr–1). SOC increases varied slightly for grassland types, ranging from 0.10 Mg C·ha–1·yr–1 for temperate desert steppe to 0.16 Mg C·ha–1·yr–1 for temperate meadow steppe and lowland meadow. The overall economic benefits of the SOC sink were estimated to be 4.0 million CNY. Aerial seeding with no grazing was found to be the most cost-effective practice. Finally, we indicated that at least 55.5 years (shortest for cultivation) were needed for the grasslands to reach their potential carbon stocks. Our findings highlight the importance and effectiveness of BTSSCP in promoting terrestrial carbon sequestration which may help mitigate climate change, and further stress the need for more attention to the effectiveness of specific practices.
Ecological restorationEcosystem-based mitigationClimate change mitigationDisaster risk reductionGrasslandThe use of Ecosystem-based Adaptation practices by smallholder farmers in Central America
Agriculture, Ecosystems and the Environment (2017). Original Research.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167880917301810Abstract
There is growing interest in promoting the use of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices to help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change, however there is limited information on how commonly these practices are used by smallholder farmers and what factors influence their use. Using participatory mapping and field surveys, we examined the prevalence and characteristics of EbA practices on 300 smallholder coffee and maize farmers in six landscapes in Central America and explored the socioeconomic and biophysical factors associated with their use. The prevalence of individual EbA practices varied across smallholder farms. Common EbA practices included live fences, home gardens, shade trees in coffee plantations, and dispersed trees in maize fields. We found a mean of 3.8 EbA practices per farm. Factors that were correlated with the total number of EbA practices on farms included the mean area of coffee plantations, farmer age, farmer experience, the farm type and the landscape in which farms were located. Factors associated with the presence or characteristics of individual EbA practices included the size of coffee plantations, farmer experience, farmer education, land tenure, landscape and farm type. Our analysis suggests that many smallholder farmers in Central America are already using certain EbA practices, but there is still scope for greater implementation. Policy makers, donors and technicians can encourage the broader use of EbA by smallholder farmers by facilitating farmer-to-farmer exchanges to share knowledge on EbA implementation, assessing the effectiveness of EbA practices in delivering adaptation benefits, and tailoring EbA policies and programs for smallholder farmers in different socioeconomic and biophysical contexts.
Ecosystem-based adaptationClimate change adaptationFood and water securityArtificial Landscapes - TerrestrialProtected areas buffer the Brazilian semi-arid biome from climate change
Biotropica (2017). Original Research.
https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12459Abstract
The Caatinga is a botanically unique semi-arid ecosystem in northeast Brazil whose vegetation is adapted to the periodic droughts that characterize this region. However, recent extreme droughts events caused by anthropogenic climate change have challenged its ecological resilience. Here, we evaluate how deforestation and protection status affect the response of the Caatinga vegetation to drought. Specifically, we compared vegetation responses to drought in natural and deforested areas as well as inside and outside protected areas, using a time-series of satellite-derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and climatic data for 2008–2013. We observed a strong effect of deforestation and land protection on overall vegetation productivity and in productivity dynamics in response to precipitation. Overall, deforested areas had significantly lower NDVI and delayed greening in response to precipitation. By contrast, strictly protected areas had higher productivity and considerable resilience to low levels of precipitation, when compared to sustainable use or unprotected areas. These results highlight the importance of protected areas in protecting ecosystem processes and native vegetation in the Caatinga against the negative effects of climate change and deforestation. Given the extremely small area of the Caatinga currently under strict protection, the creation of new conservation areas must be a priority to ensure the sustainability of ecological processes and to avoid further desertification.
Area-based approachesClimate change adaptationEcosystem healthDesertCan wildlife management units reduce land use/land cover change and climate change vulnerability? Conditions to encourage this capacity in Mexican municipalities
Land use policy (2017). Original Research.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.03.004Abstract
Climate change and land use/land cover change (LULCC) are associated with local vulnerability, defined as the intrinsic tendency of a system to be negatively affected by an event or phenomenon, but this can be ameliorated by ecosystem conservation. In Mexico, extensive Wildlife Management Units (eWMUs) are environmental policy instruments designed to promote ecosystem conservation and rural development via the sustainable use of wildlife by local populations. However, evidence of the successful reduction of LULCC by eWMUs is contradictory, and there has been no investigation into their potential as an action to promote climate change adaptation. In this study, we focused on the overall patterns of LULCC associated with eWMU throughout the country and examined strengths and weaknesses of eWMUs as policy instruments to address climate change. In particular, we analyzed how differences in areas with eWMUs influence LULCC and assessed how eWMUs could contribute to reducing vulnerability, particularly in double exposure municipalities. We calculated the percentage of eWMUs per municipality from official information and estimated LULCC from vegetation changes between 2002 and 2011. We then used the Kruskal-Wallis test to find statistically significant differences in vegetation changes based on the percentage of eWMUs and performed between-group comparisons using a post hoc Dunn test. Although Mexico has 2456 municipalities, only 37% have eWMUs. Furthermore, 64% of Mexico’s municipalities have lost vegetation cover, whereas only 36% have either gained vegetation or remained stable. In municipalities that recorded changes to the vegetation, those changes were, overall, minimal and involved less than 10% of the total area of those municipalities. In general, municipalities with less than 10% of their total area dedicated to eWMUs experienced higher vegetation losses than those with more than 10% of their total area dedicated to eWMUs. We detected twelve double exposure municipalities, i.e. they are vulnerable to climate change and lost more than 10% of their vegetation. Double exposure municipalities dedicated less than 2% of their total area to eWMUs as well. Our results suggest that incremental increases in the area dedicated to eWMUs may reduce LULCC and protect vegetation, particularly in double exposure municipalities. Based on the literature, some ecological, economic and socio-cultural factors may determine the success of eWMUs and strongly impact LULCC. Therefore, additional efforts must be made to enhance our understanding of ecological and climatic processes; habitats must be monitored using a standardized methodology; biological, cultural, economic and institutional diversity must be incorporated into the planning, implementation and monitoring of eWMUs; and agreements must be established to strengthen social organization and human capital. Taking all this into account, we suggest that reducing vulnerability and improving double exposure areas by increasing the number and interconnectedness of eWMUs could represent an effective strategic approach at the municipal level to address LULCC and climate change.
Ecosystem-based managementClimate change adaptationEcosystem healthForestGrasslandSavannaIntegrating climate change and habitat fragmentation to identify candidate seed sources for ecological restoration
Restoration Ecology (2017). Original Research.
https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12488Abstract
Anthropogenic change (climate change and habitat fragmentation) is driving a growing view that local seed collections may need to be supplemented with nonlocal seed as a strategy to bolster genetic diversity and thus increase evolutionary potential of plantings. While this strategy is becoming widely promoted, empirical support is limited, and there is a lack of accessible research tools to assist in its experimental testing. We therefore provide the Provenancing Using Climate Analogues (PUCA) framework that integrates the principles of the climate-adjusted provenancing strategy with concepts from population genetics (i.e. potential inbreeding in small fragmented populations) as both a research and operational-ready tool to guide the collection of nonlocal seed. We demonstrate the application of PUCA using the Midlands of Tasmania, Australia, a region that is currently undergoing large-scale ecological restoration. We highlight multiple nonlocal seed sources for testing by identifying actual species distribution records that currently occupy environments similar to that projected to occur at the restoration site in the future. We discuss the assumptions of PUCA and the ecological considerations that need to be tested when moving nonlocal genotypes across the landscape.
Ecological restorationClimate change adaptationEcosystem healthForestGrasslandTowards ecosystem-based restoration of peatland biodiversity
Mires and Peat (2017). Review.
http://mires-and-peat.net/media/map19/map_19_01.pdfAbstract
Natural peatlands support rich biological diversity at the genetic, species, ecosystem and landscape levels. However, because the character of this diversity differs from that of other ecosystem types, the value of peatlands for biodiversity has often been overlooked. Fundamentally, this arises because peatland ecosystems direct part of the energy captured by primary production into long-term storage within a peat layer, and thus establish a structural and functional basis for biodiversity maintenance that is not found elsewhere. This article examines the far-reaching implications for the assessment of peatland biodiversity as well as for the drivers, methods and targets of peatland conservation and restoration initiatives. It becomes clear that a robust framework for the management and restoration of peatland biodiversity must be founded in structural functional ecosystem analysis, and such a framework is developed. The authors draw on a broad base of historical and contemporary literature and experience, including important Russian contributions that have previously had little international exposure.
Ecological restorationEcosystem-based managementEcosystem-based mitigationClimate change adaptationClimate change mitigationEcosystem healthWetlandA systematic review of ecological attributes that confer resilience to climate change in environmental restoration
PLoS ONE (2017). Systematic Review.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0173812Abstract
Ecological restoration is widely practiced as a means of rehabilitating ecosystems and habitats that have been degraded or impaired through human use or other causes. Restoration practices now are confronted by climate change, which has the potential to influence long-term restoration outcomes. Concepts and attributes from the resilience literature can help improve restoration and monitoring efforts under changing climate conditions. We systematically examined the published literature on ecological resilience to identify biological, chemical, and physical attributes that confer resilience to climate change. We identified 45 attributes explicitly related to climate change and classified them as individual- (9), population- (6), community- (7), ecosystem- (7), or process-level attributes (16). Individual studies defined resilience as resistance to change or recovery from disturbance, and only a few studies explicitly included both concepts in their definition of resilience. We found that individual and population attributes generally are suited to species- or habitat-specific restoration actions and applicable at the population scale. Community attributes are better suited to habitat-specific restoration at the site scale, or system-wide restoration at the ecosystem scale. Ecosystem and process attributes vary considerably in their type and applicability. We summarize these relationships in a decision support table and provide three example applications to illustrate how these classifications can be used to prioritize climate change resilience attributes for specific restoration actions. We suggest that (1) including resilience as an explicit planning objective could increase the success of restoration projects, (2) considering the ecological context and focal scale of a restoration action is essential in choosing appropriate resilience attributes, and (3) certain ecological attributes, such as diversity and connectivity, are more commonly considered to confer resilience because they apply to a wide variety of species and ecosystems. We propose that identifying sources of ecological resilience is a critical step in restoring ecosystems in a changing climate.
Ecological restorationClimate change adaptationEcosystem healthEcosystem-based disaster risk reduction in mountains
Earth-Science Reviews (2017). Review.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.12.011Abstract
Since the late 1960s it became clear that a more sustainable protection of people and property from the negative impacts of natural hazards will require a more balanced use of structural and non-structural measures, such as land-use planning and ecosystem-based solutions for disaster risk reduction, also called Eco-DRR. The most prominent example of Eco-DRR in mountainous regions are forests that protect people, settlements and infrastructures against gravitational natural hazards such as avalanches, landslides and hazards related to mountain torrents. The goal of this paper is to provide an overview on the influence of forests on risks induced by natural hazards and the associated challenges and uncertainties concerning risk analysis. Approaches from natural hazard risk are presented, along with recent results from forest research, thereby offering new ways to integrate forests into risk analysis. We discuss the potential effects of forests on the three important hazard components of the risk concept, namely the onset probability, the propagation probability and the intensity, and propose a set of guiding principles for integrating forests into quantitative risk assessment (QRA) for natural hazards. Our focus thereby lies on snow avalanches, rockfalls, floods, landslides, and debris flows. This review shows that existing methods and models for assessing forest effects on natural hazards suffice for integrating forests into QRA. However, they are mostly limited to the stand- or slope-scale, and further efforts are therefore needed to upscale these approaches to a regional level, and account for uncertainties related to forest effects and natural dynamics. Such a dynamic, rather than a static assessment of risk will finally allow for planning and implementing intelligent combinations of Eco-DRR and technical protection measures.
Ecosystem-based disaster risk reductionDisaster risk reductionForestMontane